Physiological insight into the conserved properties of Caenorhabditis elegans acid-sensing degenerin/epithelial sodium channels.

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are members of the diverse family of degenerin/epithelial sodium channels (DEG/ENaCs). They perform a wide range of physiological roles in healthy organisms, including in gut function and synaptic transmission, but also play important roles in disease, as acidosis is a hallmark of painful inflammatory and ischaemic conditions. We performed a screen for acid sensitivity on all 30 subunits of the Caenorhabditis elegans DEG/ENaC family using two-electrode voltage clamp in Xenopus oocytes. We found two groups of acid-sensitive DEG/ENaCs characterised by being either inhibited or activated by increasing proton concentrations. Three of these acid-sensitive C. elegans DEG/ENaCs were activated by acidic pH, making them functionally similar to the vertebrate ASICs. We also identified three new members of the acid-inhibited DEG/ENaC group, giving a total of seven additional acid-sensitive channels. We observed sensitivity to the anti-hypertensive drug amiloride as well as modulation by the trace element zinc. Acid-sensitive DEG/ENaCs were found to be expressed in both neurons and non-neuronal tissue, highlighting the likely functional diversity of these channels. Our findings provide a framework to exploit the C. elegans channels as models to study the function of these acid-sensing channels in vivo, as well as to study them as potential targets for anti-helminthic drugs. KEY POINTS: Acidosis plays many roles in healthy physiology, including synaptic transmission and gut function, but is also a key feature of inflammatory pain, ischaemia and many other conditions. Cells monitor acidosis of their surroundings via pH-sensing channels, including the acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs). These are members of the degenerin/epithelial sodium channel (DEG/ENaC) family, along with, as the name suggests, vertebrate ENaCs and degenerins of the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. By screening all 30 C. elegans DEG/ENaCs for pH dependence, we describe, for the first time, three acid-activated members, as well as three additional acid-inhibited channels. We surveyed both groups for sensitivity to amiloride and zinc; like their mammalian counterparts, their currents can be blocked, enhanced or unaffected by these modulators. Likewise, they exhibit diverse ion selectivity. Our findings underline the diversity of acid-sensitive DEG/ENaCs across species and provide a comparative resource for better understanding the molecular basis of their function.

Mechanisms and consequences of casein kinase II and ankyrin-3 regulation of the epithelial Na+ channel.

Activity of the Epithelial Na+ Channel (ENaC) in the distal nephron fine-tunes renal sodium excretion. Appropriate sodium excretion is a key factor in the regulation of blood pressure. Consequently, abnormalities in ENaC function can cause hypertension. Casein Kinase II (CKII) phosphorylates ENaC. The CKII phosphorylation site in ENaC resides within a canonical "anchor" ankyrin binding motif. CKII-dependent phosphorylation of ENaC is necessary and sufficient to increase channel activity and is thought to influence channel trafficking in a manner that increases activity. We test here the hypothesis that phosphorylation of ENaC by CKII within an anchor motif is necessary for ankyrin-3 (Ank-3) regulation of the channel, which is required for normal channel locale and function, and the proper regulation of renal sodium excretion. This was addressed using a fluorescence imaging strategy combining total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy with fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) to quantify ENaC expression in the plasma membrane in living cells; and electrophysiology to quantify ENaC activity in split-open collecting ducts from principal cell-specific Ank-3 knockout mice. Sodium excretion studies also were performed in parallel in this knockout mouse. In addition, we substituted a key serine residue in the consensus CKII site in ß-ENaC with alanine to abrogate phosphorylation and disrupt the anchor motif. Findings show that disrupting CKII signaling decreases ENaC activity by decreasing expression in the plasma membrane. In the principal cell-specific Ank-3 KO mouse, ENaC activity and sodium excretion were significantly decreased and increased, respectively. These results are consistent with CKII phosphorylation of ENaC functioning as a "switch" that favors Ank-3 binding to increase channel activity.

Renal Inflammation Induces Salt Sensitivity in Male db/db Mice through Dysregulation of ENaC.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is considered a major risk factor for the progression of diabetic kidney disease. Type 2 diabetes is associated with increased renal sodium reabsorption and salt-sensitive hypertension. Clinical studies show that men have higher risk than premenopausal women for the development of diabetic kidney disease. However, the renal mechanisms that predispose to salt sensitivity during diabetes and whether sexual dimorphism is associated with these mechanisms remains unknown. METHODS: Female and male db/db mice exposed to a high-salt diet were used to analyze the progression of diabetic kidney disease and the development of hypertension. RESULTS: Male, 34-week-old, db/db mice display hypertension when exposed to a 4-week high-salt treatment, whereas equivalently treated female db/db mice remain normotensive. Salt-sensitive hypertension in male mice was associated with no suppression of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in response to a high-salt diet, despite downregulation of several components of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system. Male db/db mice show higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines and more immune-cell infiltration in the kidney than do female db/db mice. Blocking inflammation, with either mycophenolate mofetil or by reducing IL-6 levels with a neutralizing anti-IL-6 antibody, prevented the development of salt sensitivity in male db/db mice. CONCLUSIONS: The inflammatory response observed in male, but not in female, db/db mice induces salt-sensitive hypertension by impairing ENaC downregulation in response to high salt. These data provide a mechanistic explanation for the sexual dimorphism associated with the development of diabetic kidney disease and salt sensitivity.

Prostaglandin E2 stimulates the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in cultured mouse cortical collecting duct cells in an autocrine manner.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is the most abundant prostanoid in the kidney, affecting a wide range of renal functions. Conflicting data have been reported regarding the effects of PGE2 on tubular water and ion transport. The amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is rate limiting for transepithelial sodium transport in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron. The aim of the present study was to explore a potential role of PGE2 in regulating ENaC in cortical collecting duct (CCD) cells. Short-circuit current (ISC) measurements were performed using the murine mCCDcl1 cell line known to express characteristic properties of CCD principal cells and to be responsive to physiological concentrations of aldosterone and vasopressin. PGE2 stimulated amiloride-sensitive ISC via basolateral prostaglandin E receptors type 4 (EP4) with an EC50 of ∼7.1 nM. The rapid stimulatory effect of PGE2 on ISC resembled that of vasopressin. A maximum response was reached within minutes, coinciding with an increased abundance of ß-ENaC at the apical plasma membrane and elevated cytosolic cAMP levels. The effects of PGE2 and vasopressin were nonadditive, indicating similar signaling cascades. Exposing mCCDcl1 cells to aldosterone caused a much slower (∼2 h) increase of the amiloride-sensitive ISC. Interestingly, the rapid effect of PGE2 was preserved even after aldosterone stimulation. Furthermore, application of arachidonic acid also increased the amiloride-sensitive ISC involving basolateral EP4 receptors. Exposure to arachidonic acid resulted in elevated PGE2 in the basolateral medium in a cyclooxygenase 1 (COX-1)-dependent manner. These data suggest that in the cortical collecting duct, locally produced and secreted PGE2 can stimulate ENaC-mediated transepithelial sodium transport.

Renal Tubule Nedd4-2 Deficiency Stimulates Kir4.1/Kir5.1 and Thiazide-Sensitive NaCl Cotransporter in Distal Convoluted Tubule.

BACKGROUND: The potassium channel Kir4.1 forms the Kir4.1/Kir5.1 heterotetramer in the basolateral membrane of the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and plays an important role in the regulation of the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC). Kidney-specific deletion of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 increases expression of NCC, and coexpression of Nedd4-2 inhibits Kir4.1/Kir5.1 in vitro. Whether Nedd4-2 regulates NCC expression in part by regulating Kir4.1/Kir5.1 channel activity in the DCT is unknown. METHODS: We used electrophysiology studies, immunoblotting, immunostaining, and renal clearance to examine Kir4.1/Kir5.1 activity in the DCT and NCC expression/activity in wild-type mice and mice with kidney-specific knockout of Nedd4-2, Kir4.1, or both. RESULTS: Deletion of Nedd4-2 increased the activity/expression of Kir4.1 in the DCT and also, hyperpolarized the DCT membrane. Expression of phosphorylated NCC/total NCC and thiazide-induced natriuresis were significantly increased in the Nedd4-2 knockout mice, but these mice were normokalemic. Double-knockout mice lacking both Kir4.1/Kir5.1 and Nedd4-2 in the kidney exhibited increased expression of the epithelial sodium channel α-subunit, largely abolished basolateral potassium ion conductance (to a degree similar to that of kidney-specific Kir4.1 knockout mice), and depolarization of the DCT membrane. Compared with wild-type mice, the double-knockout mice displayed inhibited expression of phosphorylated NCC and total NCC and had significantly blunted thiazide-induced natriuresis as well as renal potassium wasting and hypokalemia. However, NCC expression/activity was higher in the double-knockout mice than in Kir4.1 knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS: Nedd4-2 regulates Kir4.1/Kir5.1 expression/activity in the DCT and modulates NCC expression by Kir4.1-dependent and Kir4.1-independent mechanisms. Basolateral Kir4.1/Kir5.1 activity in the DCT partially accounts for the stimulation of NCC activity/expression induced by deletion of Nedd4-2.

Azithromycin Inhibits Constitutive Airway Epithelial Sodium Channel Activation in Vitro and Modulates Downstream Pathogenesis in Vivo.

Epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is an amiloride-sensitive sodium ion channel that is expressed in epithelial tissues. ENaC overexpression and/or hyperactivation in airway epithelial cells cause sodium over-absorption and dysregulated ciliary movement for mucus clearance; however, the agents that suppress constitutive airway ENaC activation are yet to be clinically available. Here, we focused on macrolides, which are widely used antibiotics that have many potential immunomodulatory effects. We examined whether macrolides could modulate constitutive ENaC activity and downstream events that typify cystic fibrosis (CF) and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) in in vitro and in vivo models of ENaC overexpression. Treatment of ENaC-overexpressing human bronchial epithelial cells (ß/γENaC-16HBE14o- cells) with three macrolides (erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin) confirmed dose-dependent suppression of ENaC function. For in vivo studies, mice harboring airway specific ßENaC overexpression (C57BL/6J-ßENaC-transgenic mice) were treated orally with azithromycin, a well-established antimicrobial agent that has been widely prescribed. Azithromycin treatment modulated pulmonary mechanics, emphysematous phenotype and pulmonary dysfunction. Notably, a lower dose (3 mg kg-1) of azithromycin significantly increased forced expiratory volume in 0.1 s (FEV0.1), an inverse indicator of bronchoconstriction. Although not statistically significant, improvement of pulmonary obstructive parameters such as emphysema and lung dysfunction (FEV0.1%) was observed. Our results demonstrate that macrolides directly attenuate constitutive ENaC function in vitro and may be promising for the treatment of obstructive lung diseases with defective mucociliary clearance, possibly by targeting ENaC hyperactivation.

Intravital microscopic optical coherence tomography imaging to assess mucus-mobilizing interventions for muco-obstructive lung disease in mice.

Airway mucus obstruction is a hallmark of chronic lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, asthma, and COPD, and the development of more effective mucus-mobilizing therapies remains an important unmet need for patients with these muco-obstructive lung diseases. However, methods for sensitive visualization and quantitative assessment of immediate effects of therapeutic interventions on mucus clearance in vivo are lacking. In this study, we determined whether newly developed high-speed microscopic optical coherence tomography (mOCT) is sensitive to detect and compare in vivo effects of inhaled isotonic saline, hypertonic saline, and bicarbonate on mucus mobilization and clearance in Scnn1b-transgenic mice with muco-obstructive lung disease. In vivo mOCT imaging showed that inhaled isotonic saline-induced rapid mobilization of mucus that was mainly transported as chunks from the lower airways of Scnn1b-transgenic mice. Hypertonic saline mobilized a significantly greater amount of mucus that showed a more uniform distribution compared with isotonic saline. The addition of bicarbonate-to-isotonic saline had no effect on mucus mobilization, but also led to a more uniform mucus layer compared with treatment with isotonic saline alone. mOCT can detect differences in response to mucus-mobilizing interventions in vivo, and may thus support the development of more effective therapies for patients with muco-obstructive lung diseases.

Mechanisms of sodium retention in nephrotic syndrome.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Proteinuria in nephrotic syndrome is associated with sodium retention and edema. Recent studies from mice, rats and humans have shown that the sodium retention depends on urinary serine proteases and that it can be mitigated by blockers (amiloride, triamterene) of the epithelial sodium channel ENaC. The present review outlines the mechanisms of protease-stimulated sodium retention during proteinuric diseases. RECENT FINDINGS: Inhibition of protease activity in nephrotic mice using aprotinin alleviates sodium retention. From both human and mice studies, an increased proteolytic cleavage of the γENaC subunit plays a role in ENaC activation. In animal models, urokinase-plasmin contributes but not as sole mediators of sodium retention. Across experimental models, human case reports and small intervention trials, amiloride alleviates nephrotic sodium retention and low-renin hypertension with high efficacy. SUMMARY: Although the exact mechanisms for proteolytic ENaC activation are not resolved, multiple, redundant proteases are involved. Experimental and clinical evidence indicate that aberrant proteolytic ENaC activation is a primary driver of sodium retention in nephrotic syndrome and contributes to hypertension in conditions with low-grade proteinuria. Thus, we foresee increased and personalized use of amiloride treatment of nephrotic and other proteinuric disease patients with associated sodium retention and hypertension.

Lovastatin attenuates hypertension induced by renal tubule-specific knockout of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1, by inhibiting epithelial sodium channels.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: We have shown that cholesterol is synthesized in the principal cells of renal cortical collecting ducts (CCD) and stimulates the epithelial sodium channels (ENaC). Here we have determined whether lovastatin, a cholesterol synthesis inhibitor, can antagonize the hypertension induced by activated ENaC, following deletion of the cholesterol transporter (ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; ABCA1). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We selectively deleted ABCA1 in the principal cells of mouse CCD and used the cell-attached patch-clamp technique to record ENaC activity. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate protein expression levels. Systolic BP was measured with the tail-cuff method. KEY RESULTS: Specific deletion of ABCA1 elevated BP and ENaC single-channel activity in the principal cells of CCD in mice. These effects were antagonized by lovastatin. ABCA1 deletion elevated intracellular cholesterol levels, which was accompanied by elevated ROS, increased expression of serum/glucocorticoid regulated kinase 1 (Sgk1), phosphorylated neural precursor cell-expressed developmentally down-regulated protein 4-2 (Nedd4-2) and furin, along with shorten the primary cilium, and reduced ATP levels in urine. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These data suggest that specific deletion of ABCA1 in principal cells increases BP by stimulating ENaC channels via a cholesterol-dependent pathway which induces several secondary responses associated with oxidative stress, activated Sgk1/Nedd4-2, increased furin expression, and reduced cilium-mediated release of ATP. As ABCA1 can be blocked by cyclosporine A, these results suggest further investigation of the possible use of statins to treat CsA-induced hypertension.

Increased ENaC activity during kidney preservation in Wisconsin solution.

BACKGROUND: The invention of an effective kidney preservation solution capable of prolonging harvested kidney viability is the core of kidney transplantation procedure. Researchers have been working on upgrading the preservation solution quality aiming at prolonging storage time while maintaining utmost organ viability and functionality. For many years, the University of Wisconsin (UW) solution has been considered the gold standard solution for kidney preservation. However, the lifespan of kidney preservation in the UW solution is still limited. Its impact on the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) activity and its mediated processes is unknown and the primary goal of this study. METHODS: Kidneys harvested from 8 weeks old Sprague Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups depending upon the period of preservation in UW solution. Additional analysis was performed using dogs' kidneys. ENaC activity was measured using patch clamp technique; protein expression and mRNA transcription were tested through Western blot and RT-qPCR, respectively. A colorimetric LDH level estimation was performed at different time points during UW solution preservation. RESULTS: Kidney preservation in Wisconsin solution caused reduction of the kidney size and weight and elevation of LDH level. ENaC activity increased in both rat and dog kidneys preserved in the UW solution as assessed by patch clamp analysis. On the contrary, ENaC channel mRNA levels remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: ENaC activity is significantly elevated in the kidneys during preservation in UW solution, which might affect the immediate post-implantation allograft function and trajectory post-transplant.

MST3 is involved in ENaC-mediated hypertension.

Liddle syndrome is an inherited form of human hypertension caused by increasing epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) expression. Increased Na+ retention through ENaC with subsequent volume expansion causes hypertension. In addition to ENaC, the Na+-K+-Cl- cotransporter (NKCC) and Na+-Cl- symporter (NCC) are responsible for Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys. Several Na+ transporters are evolutionarily regulated by the Ste20 kinase family. Ste20-related proline/alanine-rich kinase and oxidative stress-responsive kinase-1 phosphorylate downstream NKCC2 and NCC to maintain Na+ and blood pressure (BP) homeostasis. Mammalian Ste20 kinase 3 (MST3) is another member of the Ste20 family. We previously reported that reduced MST3 levels were found in the kidneys in spontaneously hypertensive rats and that MST3 was involved in Na+ regulation. To determine whether MST3 is involved in BP stability through Na+ regulation, we generated a MST3 hypomorphic mutation and designated MST3+/- and MST3-/- mice to examine BP and serum Na+ and K+ concentrations. MST3-/- mice exhibited hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypertension. The increased ENaC in the kidney played roles in hypernatremia. The reabsorption of more Na+ promoted more K+ secretion in the kidney and caused hypokalemia. The hypernatremia and hypokalemia in MST3-/- mice were significantly reversed by the ENaC inhibitor amiloride, indicating that MST3-/- mice reabsorbed more Na+ through ENaC. Furthermore, Madin-Darby canine kidney cells stably expressing kinase-dead MST3 displayed elevated ENaC currents. Both the in vivo and in vitro results indicated that MST3 maintained Na+ homeostasis through ENaC regulation. We are the first to report that MST3 maintains BP stability through ENaC regulation.

Involvement of the epithelial sodium channel in initiation of mechanically evoked swallows in anaesthetized rats.

KEY POINTS: Afferents carried by the superior laryngeal nerve play a primary role in the initiation of laryngeal mechanically evoked swallows in anaesthetized rats. Amiloride and its analogues inhibit swallowing evoked by mechanical stimulation, but not swallowing evoked by chemical and electrical stimulation. The epithelial sodium channel is probably involved in the initiation of laryngeal mechanically evoked swallows. ABSTRACT: The swallowing reflex plays a critical role in airway protection. Because impaired laryngeal mechanosensation is associated with food bolus aspiration, it is important to know how the laryngeal sensory system regulates swallowing initiation. This study was performed to clarify the neuronal mechanism of mechanically evoked swallows. Urethane-anaesthetized Sprague-Dawley male rats were used. A swallow was identified by activation of the suprahyoid and thyrohyoid muscles on electromyography. The swallowing threshold was measured by von Frey filament and electrical stimulation of the larynx. The number of swallows induced by upper airway distension and capsaicin application (0.03 nmol, 3 µl) to the vocal folds was counted. The effects of topical application (0.3-30 nmol, 3 µl) of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) blocker amiloride and its analogues (benzamil and dimethylamiloride), acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) inhibitors (mambalgine-1 and diminazene) and gadolinium to the laryngeal mucosa on swallowing initiation were evaluated. A nerve transection study indicated that afferents carried by the superior laryngeal nerve play a primary role in the initiation of laryngeal mechanically evoked swallows. The mechanical threshold of swallowing was increased in a dose-dependent manner by amiloride and its analogues and gadolinium, but not by ASIC inhibitors. The number of swallows by upper airway distension was significantly decreased by benzamil application. However, the initiation of swallows evoked by capsaicin and electrical stimulation was not affected by benzamil application. We speculate that the ENaC is involved in the initiation of laryngeal mechanically evoked swallows.

New insights regarding epithelial Na+ channel regulation and its role in the kidney, immune system and vasculature.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review describes recent findings regarding the epithelial Na channel (ENaC) and its roles in physiologic and pathophysiologic states. We discuss new insights regarding ENaC's structure, its regulation by various factors, its potential role in hypertension and nephrotic syndrome, and its roles in the immune system and vasculature. RECENT FINDINGS: A recently resolved structure of ENaC provides clues regarding mechanisms of ENaC activation by proteases. The use of amiloride in nephrotic syndrome, and associated complications are discussed. ENaC is expressed in dendritic cells and contributes to immune system activation and increases in blood pressure in response to NaCl. ENaC is expressed in endothelial ENaC and has a role in regulating vascular tone. SUMMARY: New findings have emerged regarding ENaC and its role in the kidney, immune system, and vasculature.

Determinants of selective ion permeation in the epithelial Na+ channel.

The epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) is a key transporter mediating and controlling Na+ reabsorption in many tight epithelia. A very high selectivity for Na+ over other cations, including K+, is a hallmark of this channel. This selectivity greatly exceeds that of the closely related acid-sensing channels (ASICs). Here, we assess the roles of two regions of the ENaC transmembrane pore in the determination of cation selectivity. Mutations of conserved amino acids with acidic side chains near the cytoplasmic end of the pore diminish macroscopic currents but do not decrease the selectivity of the channel for Na+ versus K+ In the WT channel, voltage-dependent block of Na+ currents by K+ or guanidinium+, neither of which have detectable conductance, suggests that these ions permeate only ∼20% of the transmembrane electric field. According to markers of the electric field determined by Zn2+ block of cysteine residues, the site of K+ block appears to be nearer to the extracellular end of the pore, close to a putative selectivity filter identified using site-directed mutations. To test whether differences in this part of the channel account for selectivity differences between ENaC and ASIC, we substitute amino acids in the three ENaC subunits with those present in the ASIC homotrimer. In this construct, Li:Na selectivity is altered from that of WT ENaC, but the high Na:K selectivity is maintained. We conclude that a different part of the pore may constitute the selectivity filter in the highly selective ENaC than in the less-selective ASIC channel.

The epithelial Na+ channel γ subunit autoinhibitory tract suppresses channel activity by binding the γ subunit's finger-thumb domain interface.

Epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) maturation and activation require proteolysis of both the α and γ subunits. Cleavage at multiple sites in the finger domain of each subunit liberates their autoinhibitory tracts. Synthetic peptides derived from the proteolytically released fragments inhibit the channel, likely by reconstituting key interactions removed by the proteolysis. We previously showed that a peptide derived from the α subunit's autoinhibitory sequence (α-8) binds at the α subunit's finger-thumb domain interface. Despite low sequence similarity between the α and γ subunit finger domains, we hypothesized that a peptide derived from the γ subunit's autoinhibitory sequence (γ-11) inhibits the channel through an analogous mechanism. Using Xenopus oocytes, we found here that channels lacking a γ subunit thumb domain were no longer sensitive to γ-11, but remained sensitive to α-8. We identified finger domain sites in the γ subunit that dramatically reduced γ-11 inhibition. Using cysteines and sulfhydryl reactive cross-linkers introduced into both the peptide and the subunit, we also could cross-link γ-11 to both the finger domain and the thumb domain of the γ subunit. Our results suggest that α-8 and γ-11 occupy similar binding pockets within their respective subunits, and that proteolysis of the α and γ subunits activate the channel through analogous mechanisms.

Epithelial sodium channel biogenesis and quality control in the early secretory pathway.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The epithelial sodium channel, ENaC, is responsible for Na reabsorption in several epithelia and is composed of homologous α, ß, and γ subunits. Here, we will explore the differential regulation of ENaC subunits during biogenesis in the early secretory pathway. RECENT FINDINGS: ENaC subunits are subject to numerous posttranslational modifications, including glycosylation, protease activation, disulfide bond formation, palmitoylation, and glycosylation, each of which modulate channel function. For example, glycan addition is regulated by sodium and affects protease activation at the cell surface, protein trafficking, sodium-dependent regulation, and sodium transport. Glycosylation of the α subunit also determines whether a chaperone, Lhs1/GRP170, selects the protein for endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation. Recognition by this chaperone is blocked by assembly of the ENaC transmembrane domains. In contrast, cytosolic lysines are acetylated in the early secretory pathway, which inhibits ubiquitination and endocytosis at the cell surface. SUMMARY: As sodium reabsorption by ENaC in the distal nephron regulates salt and water homeostasis, ENaC function is critical for human health. Therefore, identifying and characterizing modifiers of ENaC in the early secretory pathway may provide both new therapeutic targets and further our basic understanding of membrane protein assembly and regulation.

Quantitative proteomics and SWATH-MS to elucidate peri-receptor mechanisms in human salt taste sensitivity.

Recently, studies on human salt taste sensitivity demonstrated that sodium chloride (NaCl) sensitive and non-sensitive subjects differed in their salivary proteome and, in particular, in endopeptidase activity. In order to investigate individual's NaCl sensitivity and the role of endoprotease activity in salt taste perception, 20 panellists were classified according to NaCl sensitivity and saliva samples collected. A targeted protein quantitation by means of selected-reaction-monitoring (SRM) mass spectrometry and stable-isotope incorporation revealed the joint abundance of lysozyme C and lipocalin-1 to be indicative for non-sensitive subjects. Sensory studies performed after oral challenge with the serine-type endopeptidase trypsin demonstrated a salt enhancing effect which was assumed to be due to an in-vivo generation of salt-modulating peptides as shown by LC-SWATH-MS. Amongst those, the tetrapeptide PLWR was found to elicit salty taste enhancing activity above an extraordinarily low taste threshold concentration of 6.5 µmol/L.

Listeriolysin O Causes ENaC Dysfunction in Human Airway Epithelial Cells.

Pulmonary permeability edema is characterized by reduced alveolar Na⁺ uptake capacity and capillary barrier dysfunction and is a potentially lethal complication of listeriosis. Apical Na⁺ uptake is mainly mediated by the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and initiates alveolar liquid clearance. Here we examine how listeriolysin O (LLO), the pore-forming toxin of Listeria monocytogenes, impairs the expression and activity of ENaC. To that purpose, we studied how sub-lytic concentrations of LLO affect negative and positive regulators of ENaC expression in the H441 airway epithelial cell line. LLO reduced expression of the crucial ENaC-α subunit in H441 cells within 2 h and this was preceded by activation of PKC-α, a negative regulator of the channel's expression. At later time points, LLO caused a significant reduction in the phosphorylation of Sgk-1 at residue T256 and of Akt-1 at residue S473, both of which are required for full activation of ENaC. The TNF-derived TIP peptide prevented LLO-mediated PKC-α activation and restored phospho-Sgk-1-T256. The TIP peptide also counteracted the observed LLO-induced decrease in amiloride-sensitive Na⁺ current and ENaC-α expression in H441 cells. Intratracheally instilled LLO caused profound pulmonary edema formation in mice, an effect that was prevented by the TIP peptide; thus indicating the therapeutic potential of the peptide for the treatment of pore-forming toxin-associated permeability edema.

Layer-specific excitation/inhibition balances during neuronal synchronization in the visual cortex.

KEY POINTS: Understanding the balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition in cortical circuits in the brain, and how this contributes to cortical rhythms, is fundamental to explaining information processing in the cortex. This study used cortical layer-specific optogenetic activation in mouse cortex to show that excitatory neurons in any cortical layer can drive powerful gamma rhythms, while inhibition balances excitation. The net impact of this is to keep activity within each layer in check, but simultaneously to promote the propagation of activity to downstream layers. The data show that rhythm-generating circuits exist in all principle layers of the cortex, and provide layer-specific balances of excitation and inhibition that affect the flow of information across the layers. ABSTRACT: Rhythmic activity can synchronize neural ensembles within and across cortical layers. While gamma band rhythmicity has been observed in all layers, the laminar sources and functional impacts of neuronal synchronization in the cortex remain incompletely understood. Here, layer-specific optogenetic stimulation demonstrates that populations of excitatory neurons in any cortical layer of the mouse's primary visual cortex are sufficient to powerfully entrain neuronal oscillations in the gamma band. Within each layer, inhibition balances excitation and keeps activity in check. Across layers, translaminar output overcomes inhibition and drives downstream firing. These data establish that rhythm-generating circuits exist in all principle layers of the cortex, but provide layer-specific balances of excitation and inhibition that may dynamically shape the flow of information through cortical circuits. These data might help explain how excitation/inhibition (E/I) balances across cortical layers shape information processing, and shed light on the diverse nature and functional impacts of cortical gamma rhythms.